SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Swarm intelligence</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Swarm intelligence</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<p><b>Swarm intelligence</b> (<b>SI</b>) is the <a href="Collective_behavior" title="Collective behavior">collective behavior</a> of <a href="Decentralization" title="Decentralization">decentralized</a>, <a href="Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organized</a> systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. The expression was introduced by <a href="Gerardo_Beni" title="Gerardo Beni">Gerardo Beni</a> and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Swarm intelligence systems consist typically of a population of simple <a href="Intelligent_agent" title="Intelligent agent">agents</a> or <a href="Boids" title="Boids">boids</a> interacting locally with one another and with their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-tcds_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tcds-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inspiration often comes from nature, especially biological systems.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local, and to a certain degree random, interactions between such agents lead to the <a href="Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a> of "intelligent" global behavior, unknown to the individual agents.<sup id="cite_ref-tro_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tro-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of swarm intelligence in natural systems include <a href="Ant_colony" title="Ant colony">ant colonies</a>, <a href="Bee_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bee colonies">bee colonies</a>, bird <a href="Flocking_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behavior)">flocking</a>, hawks <a href="Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a>, animal <a href="Herding" title="Herding">herding</a>, <a href="Bacteria#Growth_and_reproduction" title="Bacteria">bacterial growth</a>, fish <a href="Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">schooling</a> and <a href="Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">microbial intelligence</a>.

</p><p>The application of swarm principles to <a href="Robot" title="Robot">robots</a> is called <i><a href="Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">swarm robotics</a></i> while <i>swarm intelligence</i> refers to the more general set of algorithms. <i>Swarm prediction</i> has been used in the context of forecasting problems. Similar approaches to those proposed for swarm robotics are considered for <a href="Genetically_modified_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified organisms">genetically modified organisms</a> in synthetic collective intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Models_of_swarm_behavior">Models of swarm behavior</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm behaviour</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boids_(Reynolds_1987)">Boids (Reynolds 1987)</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Boids" title="Boids">Boids</a></div>

<p>Boids is an <a href="Artificial_life" title="Artificial life">artificial life</a> program, developed by <a href="Craig_Reynolds_(computer_graphics)" title="Craig Reynolds (computer graphics)">Craig Reynolds</a> in 1986, which simulates <a href="Flocking_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behavior)">flocking</a>. It was published in 1987 in the proceedings of the <a href="Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a> <a href="SIGGRAPH" title="SIGGRAPH">SIGGRAPH</a> conference.<sup id="cite_ref-reynolds_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reynolds-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The name "boid" corresponds to a shortened version of "bird-oid object", which refers to a bird-like object.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As with most artificial life simulations, Boids is an example of <a href="Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent</a> behavior; that is, the complexity of Boids arises from the interaction of individual agents (the boids, in this case) adhering to a set of simple rules. The rules applied in the simplest Boids world are as follows:

</p>

<ul><li><b>separation</b>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/steer#Verb" class="extiw external" title="wikt:steer">steer</a> to avoid crowding local flockmates</li>

<li><b>alignment</b>: steer towards the average heading of local flockmates</li>

<li><b>cohesion</b>: steer to move toward the average position (center of mass) of local flockmates</li></ul>

<p>More complex rules can be added, such as obstacle avoidance and goal seeking.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-propelled_particles_(Vicsek_et_al._1995)">Self-propelled particles (Vicsek <i>et al</i>. 1995)</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">Self-propelled particles</a></div>

<p>Self-propelled particles (SPP), also referred to as the <i><a href="Vicsek_model" title="Vicsek model">Vicsek model</a></i>, was introduced in 1995 by <a href="Tam%C3%A1s_Vicsek" title="Tamás Vicsek">Vicsek</a> <i>et al.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Vicsek1995_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vicsek1995-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a special case of the <a href="Boids" title="Boids">boids</a> model introduced in 1986 by <a href="Craig_Reynolds_(computer_graphics)" title="Craig Reynolds (computer graphics)">Reynolds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-reynolds_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reynolds-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A swarm is modelled in SPP by a collection of particles that move with a constant speed but respond to a random perturbation by adopting at each time increment the average direction of motion of the other particles in their local neighbourhood.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SPP models predict that swarming animals share certain properties at the group level, regardless of the type of animals in the swarm.<sup id="cite_ref-Buhl_et_al_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buhl_et_al-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Swarming systems give rise to <a href="Emergent_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergent behaviour">emergent behaviours</a> which occur at many different scales, some of which are turning out to be both universal and robust. It has become a challenge in theoretical physics to find minimal statistical models that capture these behaviours.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bertin_et_al_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bertin_et_al-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Li_et_al_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_et_al-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metaheuristics">Metaheuristics</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_metaphor-based_metaheuristics" title="List of metaphor-based metaheuristics">List of metaphor-based metaheuristics</a></div>

<p><a href="Evolutionary_algorithm" title="Evolutionary algorithm">Evolutionary algorithms</a> (EA), <a href="Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">particle swarm optimization</a> (PSO), <a href="Differential_evolution" title="Differential evolution">differential evolution</a> (DE), <a href="Ant_colony_optimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization">ant colony optimization</a> (ACO) and their variants dominate the field of nature-inspired <a href="Metaheuristic" title="Metaheuristic">metaheuristics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This list includes algorithms published up to circa the year 2000. A large number of more recent metaphor-inspired metaheuristics have started to <a href="List_of_metaphor-inspired_metaheuristics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of metaphor-inspired metaheuristics">attract criticism in the research community</a> for hiding their lack of novelty behind an elaborate metaphor.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For algorithms published since that time, see <a href="List_of_metaphor-based_metaheuristics" title="List of metaphor-based metaheuristics">List of metaphor-based metaheuristics</a>.

</p><p><a href="Metaheuristic" title="Metaheuristic">Metaheuristics</a> lack a confidence in a solution.<sup id="cite_ref-Silberholz_2019_581–604_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silberholz_2019_581–604-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When appropriate parameters are determined, and when sufficient convergence stage is achieved, they often find a solution that is optimal, or near close to optimum – nevertheless, if one does not know optimal solution in advance, a quality of a solution is not known.<sup id="cite_ref-Silberholz_2019_581–604_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silberholz_2019_581–604-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of this obvious drawback it has been shown that these types of <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> work well in practice, and have been extensively researched, and developed.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, it is possible to avoid this drawback by calculating solution quality for a special case where such calculation is possible, and after such run it is known that every solution that is at least as good as the solution a special case had, has at least a solution confidence a special case had. One such instance is <a href="Ant_colony_optimization_algorithms" title="Ant colony optimization algorithms">Ant</a>-inspired <a href="Monte_Carlo_algorithm" title="Monte Carlo algorithm">Monte Carlo algorithm</a> for <a href="Minimum_feedback_arc_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimum feedback arc set">Minimum Feedback Arc Set</a> where this has been achieved probabilistically via hybridization of <a href="Monte_Carlo_algorithm" title="Monte Carlo algorithm">Monte Carlo algorithm</a> with <a href="Ant_colony_optimization_algorithms" title="Ant colony optimization algorithms">Ant Colony Optimization</a> technique.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ant_colony_optimization_(Dorigo_1992)">Ant colony optimization (Dorigo 1992)</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ant_colony_optimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization">Ant colony optimization</a></div>

<p>Ant colony optimization (ACO), introduced by Dorigo in his doctoral dissertation, is a class of <a href="Optimization_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimization (mathematics)">optimization</a> <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> modeled on the actions of an <a href="Ant_colony" title="Ant colony">ant colony</a>. ACO is a <a href="Probabilistic_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Probabilistic algorithm">probabilistic technique</a> useful in problems that deal with finding better paths through graphs. Artificial 'ants'—simulation agents—locate optimal solutions by moving through a <a href="Parameter_space" title="Parameter space">parameter space</a> representing all possible solutions. Natural ants lay down <a href="Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromones</a> directing each other to resources while exploring their environment. The simulated 'ants' similarly record their positions and the quality of their solutions, so that in later simulation iterations more ants locate for better solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particle_swarm_optimization_(Kennedy,_Eberhart_&_Shi_1995)">Particle swarm optimization (Kennedy, Eberhart & Shi 1995)</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a></div>

<p>Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a <a href="Global_optimization" title="Global optimization">global optimization</a> algorithm for dealing with problems in which a best solution can be represented as a point or surface in an n-dimensional space. Hypotheses are plotted in this space and seeded with an initial <a href="Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a>, as well as a communication channel between the particles.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Particles then move through the solution space, and are evaluated according to some <a href="Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> criterion after each timestep. Over time, particles are accelerated towards those particles within their communication grouping which have better fitness values. The main advantage of such an approach over other global minimization strategies such as <a href="Simulated_annealing" title="Simulated annealing">simulated annealing</a> is that the large number of members that make up the particle swarm make the technique impressively resilient to the problem of <a href="Local_minima" class="mw-redirect" title="Local minima">local minima</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_bee_colony_algorithm_(Karaboga_2005)">Artificial bee colony algorithm (Karaboga 2005)</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Artificial_bee_colony_algorithm" title="Artificial bee colony algorithm">Artificial bee colony algorithm</a></div>

<p>Karaboga introduced ABC metaheuristic in 2005 as an answer to optimize numerical problems. Inspired by <a href="Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">honey bee</a> foraging behavior, Karaboga's model had three components. The employed, onlooker, and scout. In practice, the artificial scout bee would expose all food source positions (solutions) good or bad. The employed bee would search for the shortest route to each position to extract the food amount (quality) of the source. If the food was <a href="Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">depleted</a> from the source, the employed bee would become a scout and randomly search for other food sources. Each source that became abandoned created negative feedback meaning, the answers found were poor solutions. The onlooker bees wait for employed bees to either abandon a source or give information that the source has a large quantity of food and is worth sending additional resources to. The more an onlooker bee is recruited, the more positive the feedback is meaning that the answer is likely a good solution.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_Swarm_Intelligence_(2015)">Artificial Swarm Intelligence (2015)</h3></div>

<p>Artificial Swarm Intelligence (ASI) is method of amplifying the collective intelligence of networked human groups using control algorithms modeled after natural swarms. Sometimes referred to as Human Swarming or Swarm AI, the technology connects groups of human participants into real-time systems that deliberate and converge on solutions as dynamic swarms when simultaneously presented with a question<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ASI has been used for a wide range of applications, from enabling business teams to generate highly accurate financial forecasts<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to enabling sports fans to outperform Vegas betting markets.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ASI has also been used to enable groups of doctors to generate diagnoses with significantly higher accuracy than traditional methods.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ASI has been used by the <a href="Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)</a> of the <a href="United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> to help forecast famines in hotspots around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

<p>Swarm Intelligence-based techniques can be used in a number of applications. The U.S. military is investigating swarm techniques for controlling unmanned vehicles. The <a href="European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> is thinking about an orbital swarm for self-assembly and interferometry. <a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> is investigating the use of swarm technology for planetary mapping. A 1992 paper by <a href="M._Anthony_Lewis_(roboticist)" class="mw-redirect" title="M. Anthony Lewis (roboticist)">M. Anthony Lewis</a> and <a href="George_A._Bekey" title="George A. Bekey">George A. Bekey</a> discusses the possibility of using swarm intelligence to control nanobots within the body for the purpose of killing cancer tumors.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely al-Rifaie and Aber have used <a href="Stochastic_diffusion_search" title="Stochastic diffusion search">stochastic diffusion search</a> to help locate tumours.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Swarm intelligence (SI) is increasingly applied in Internet of Things (IoT)<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> systems, and by association to Intent-Based Networking (IBN),<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to its ability to handle complex, distributed tasks through decentralized, self-organizing algorithms. Swarm intelligence has also been applied for <a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">cluster analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ant-based models are further subject of modern management theory.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ant-based_routing">Ant-based routing</h3></div>

<p>The use of swarm intelligence in <a href="Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">telecommunication networks</a> has also been researched, in the form of <a href="Ant_colony_optimization_algorithms" title="Ant colony optimization algorithms">ant-based routing</a>. This was pioneered separately by Dorigo et al. and <a href="Hewlett-Packard" title="Hewlett-Packard">Hewlett-Packard</a> in the mid-1990s, with a number of variants existing. Basically, this uses a <a href="Probabilistic_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Probabilistic algorithm">probabilistic</a> routing table rewarding/reinforcing the route successfully traversed by each "ant" (a small control packet) which flood the network. Reinforcement of the route in the forwards, reverse direction and both simultaneously have been researched: backwards reinforcement requires a symmetric network and couples the two directions together; forwards reinforcement rewards a route before the outcome is known (but then one would pay for the cinema before one knows how good the film is). As the system behaves stochastically and is therefore lacking repeatability, there are large hurdles to commercial deployment. Mobile media and new technologies have the potential to change the threshold for collective action due to swarm intelligence (Rheingold: 2002, P175).

</p><p>The location of transmission infrastructure for wireless communication networks is an important engineering problem involving competing objectives. A minimal selection of locations (or sites) are required subject to providing adequate area coverage for users. A very different, ant-inspired swarm intelligence algorithm, stochastic diffusion search (SDS), has been successfully used to provide a general model for this problem, related to circle packing and set covering. It has been shown that the SDS can be applied to identify suitable solutions even for large problem instances.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Airlines have also used ant-based routing in assigning aircraft arrivals to airport gates. At <a href="Southwest_Airlines" title="Southwest Airlines">Southwest Airlines</a> a software program uses swarm theory, or swarm intelligence—the idea that a colony of ants works better than one alone. Each pilot acts like an ant searching for the best airport gate. "The pilot learns from his experience what's the best for him, and it turns out that that's the best solution for the airline," <a href="Douglas_A._Lawson" title="Douglas A. Lawson">Douglas A. Lawson</a> explains. As a result, the "colony" of pilots always go to gates they can arrive at and depart from quickly. The program can even alert a pilot of plane back-ups before they happen. "We can anticipate that it's going to happen, so we'll have a gate available," Lawson says.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crowd_simulation">Crowd simulation</h3></div>

<p>Artists are using swarm technology as a means of creating complex interactive systems or <a href="Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">simulating crowds</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Instances">Instances</h4></div>

<p><a href="The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(film_series)" title="The Lord of the Rings (film series)"><i>The Lord of the Rings</i> film trilogy</a> made use of similar technology, known as <a href="Massive_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive (software)">Massive (software)</a>, during battle scenes. Swarm technology is particularly attractive because it is cheap, robust, and simple.

</p><p><i><a href="Stanley_and_Stella_in%3A_Breaking_the_Ice" title="Stanley and Stella in: Breaking the Ice">Stanley and Stella in: Breaking the Ice</a></i> was the first movie to make use of swarm technology for rendering, realistically depicting the movements of groups of fish and birds using the Boids system.

</p><p>Tim Burton's <i><a href="Batman_Returns" title="Batman Returns">Batman Returns</a></i> also made use of swarm technology for showing the movements of a group of bats.

</p><p>Airlines have used swarm theory to simulate passengers boarding a plane. Southwest Airlines researcher Douglas A. Lawson used an ant-based computer simulation employing only six interaction rules to evaluate boarding times using various boarding methods.(Miller, 2010, xii-xviii).<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_swarming">Human swarming</h3></div>

<p>Networks of distributed users can be organized into "human swarms" through the implementation of real-time closed-loop control systems.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rosenberg_58–62_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenberg_58–62-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developed by <a href="Louis_B._Rosenberg" title="Louis B. Rosenberg">Louis Rosenberg</a> in 2015, human swarming, also called artificial swarm intelligence, allows the collective intelligence of interconnected groups of people online to be harnessed.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collective intelligence of the group often exceeds the abilities of any one member of the group.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Stanford_University_School_of_Medicine" title="Stanford University School of Medicine">Stanford University School of Medicine</a> published in 2018 a study showing that groups of human doctors, when connected together by real-time swarming algorithms, could diagnose medical conditions with substantially higher accuracy than individual doctors or groups of doctors working together using traditional crowd-sourcing methods. In one such study, swarms of human radiologists connected together were tasked with diagnosing chest x-rays and demonstrated a 33% reduction in diagnostic errors as compared to the traditional human methods, and a 22% improvement over traditional machine-learning.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="UCSF_School_of_Medicine" title="UCSF School of Medicine">University of California San Francisco (UCSF) School of Medicine</a> released a <a href="Preprint" title="Preprint">preprint</a> in 2021 about the diagnosis of <a href="Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI images</a> by small groups of collaborating doctors. The study showed a 23% increase in diagnostic accuracy when using Artificial Swarm Intelligence (ASI) technology compared to majority voting.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swarm_grammars">Swarm grammars</h3></div>

<p>Swarm grammars are swarms of <a href="Stochastic_grammar" title="Stochastic grammar">stochastic grammars</a> that can be evolved to describe complex properties such as found in art and architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These grammars interact as agents behaving according to rules of swarm intelligence. Such behavior can also suggest <a href="Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a> algorithms, in particular when mapping of such swarms to neural circuits is considered.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swarmic_art">Swarmic art</h3></div>

<p>In a series of works, al-Rifaie et al.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have successfully used two swarm intelligence algorithms—one mimicking the behaviour of one species of ants (<i>Leptothorax acervorum</i>) foraging (<a href="Stochastic_diffusion_search" title="Stochastic diffusion search">stochastic diffusion search</a>, SDS) and the other algorithm mimicking the behaviour of birds flocking (<a href="Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">particle swarm optimization</a>, PSO)—to describe a novel integration strategy exploiting the local search properties of the PSO with global SDS behaviour. The resulting <a href="Hybrid_algorithm" title="Hybrid algorithm">hybrid algorithm</a> is used to sketch novel drawings of an input image, exploiting an artistic tension between the local behaviour of the 'birds flocking'—as they seek to follow the input sketch—and the global behaviour of the "ants foraging"—as they seek to encourage the flock to explore novel regions of the canvas. The "creativity" of this hybrid swarm system has been analysed under the philosophical light of the "rhizome" in the context of <a href="Deleuze" class="mw-redirect" title="Deleuze">Deleuze</a>'s "Orchid and Wasp" metaphor.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A more recent work of al-Rifaie et al., "Swarmic Sketches and Attention Mechanism",<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> introduces a novel approach deploying the mechanism of 'attention' by adapting SDS to selectively attend to detailed areas of a digital canvas. Once the attention of the swarm is drawn to a certain line within the canvas, the capability of PSO is used to produce a 'swarmic sketch' of the attended line. The swarms move throughout the digital canvas in an attempt to satisfy their dynamic roles—attention to areas with more details—associated with them via their fitness function. Having associated the rendering process with the concepts of attention, the performance of the participating swarms creates a unique, non-identical sketch each time the 'artist' swarms embark on interpreting the input line drawings. In other works, while PSO is responsible for the sketching process, SDS controls the attention of the swarm.

</p><p>In a similar work, "Swarmic Paintings and Colour Attention",<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> non-photorealistic images are produced using SDS algorithm which, in the context of this work, is responsible for colour attention.

</p><p>The "<a href="Computational_creativity" title="Computational creativity">computational creativity</a>" of the above-mentioned systems are discussed in<sup id="cite_ref-:1_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through the two prerequisites of creativity (i.e. freedom and constraints) within the swarm intelligence's two infamous phases of exploration and exploitation.

</p><p>Michael Theodore and <a href="Nikolaus_Correll" title="Nikolaus Correll">Nikolaus Correll</a> use swarm intelligent art installation to explore what it takes to have engineered systems to appear lifelike.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_researchers">Notable researchers</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="div-col">

<ul><li><a href="Maurice_Clerc_(mathematician)" title="Maurice Clerc (mathematician)">Maurice Clerc (mathematician)</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikolaus_Correll" title="Nikolaus Correll">Nikolaus Correll</a></li>

<li><a href="Marco_Dorigo" title="Marco Dorigo">Marco Dorigo</a></li>

<li><a href="Russell_C._Eberhart" title="Russell C. Eberhart">Russell C. Eberhart</a></li>

<li><a href="Luca_Maria_Gambardella" title="Luca Maria Gambardella">Luca Maria Gambardella</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Kennedy_(social_psychologist)" title="James Kennedy (social psychologist)">James Kennedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Alcherio_Martinoli" title="Alcherio Martinoli">Alcherio Martinoli</a></li>

<li><a href="Craig_Reynolds_(computer_graphics)" title="Craig Reynolds (computer graphics)">Craig Reynolds</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnus_Egerstedt" title="Magnus Egerstedt">Magnus Egerstedt</a></li>

<li><a href="P._N._Suganthan" title="P. N. Suganthan">P. N. Suganthan</a></li></ul>

</div>

<ul><li><a href="Artificial_immune_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial immune systems">Artificial immune systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Collaborative_intelligence" title="Collaborative intelligence">Collaborative intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_effervescence" title="Collective effervescence">Collective effervescence</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_mind_(science_fiction)" title="Group mind (science fiction)">Group mind (science fiction)</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellular_automaton" title="Cellular automaton">Cellular automaton</a></li>

<li><a href="Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">Complex systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_evolution" title="Differential evolution">Differential evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Dispersive_flies_optimisation" title="Dispersive flies optimisation">Dispersive flies optimisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_brain" title="Global brain">Global brain</a></li>

<li><a href="Harmony_search" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmony search">Harmony search</a></li>

<li><a href="Language" title="Language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent system</a></li>

<li><a href="Myrmecology" title="Myrmecology">Myrmecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Promise_theory" title="Promise theory">Promise theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_protocol" title="Population protocol">Population protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-organized_criticality" title="Self-organized criticality">Self-organized criticality</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiral_optimization_algorithm" title="Spiral optimization algorithm">Spiral optimization algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Stochastic_optimization" title="Stochastic optimization">Stochastic optimization</a></li>

<li><a href="Swarm_Development_Group" title="Swarm Development Group">Swarm Development Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Swarm_robotic_platforms" title="Swarm robotic platforms">Swarm robotic platforms</a></li>

<li><a href="Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarming</a></li>

<li><a href="SwisTrack" title="SwisTrack">SwisTrack</a></li>

<li><a href="Symmetry_breaking_of_escaping_ants" title="Symmetry breaking of escaping ants">Symmetry breaking of escaping ants</a></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Wisdom_of_Crowds" title="The Wisdom of Crowds">The Wisdom of Crowds</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Wisdom_of_the_crowd" title="Wisdom of the crowd">Wisdom of the crowd</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFBeni,_G.Wang,_J.1993" class="citation book cs1">Beni, G.; Wang, J. (1993). "Swarm Intelligence in Cellular Robotic Systems". <i>Proceed. NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, Tuscany, Italy, June 26–30 (1989)</i>. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">703–</span>712. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-58069-7_38">10.1007/978-3-642-58069-7_38</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-63461-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBeni1989" class="citation book cs1">Beni, G. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/65405">"The concept of cellular robotic system"</a>. <i>Proceedings IEEE International Symposium on Intelligent Control 1988</i>. IEEE. pp. <span class="nowrap">57–</span>62. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FISIC.1988.65405">10.1109/ISIC.1988.65405</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8186-2012-6</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-tcds-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tcds_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hu, J.; Turgut, A.; Krajnik, T.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9173524">Occlusion-Based Coordination Protocol Design for Autonomous Robotic Shepherding Tasks</a>" IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems, 2020.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGad2022" class="citation journal cs1">Gad, Ahmed G. (2022-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11831-021-09694-4">"Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm and Its Applications: A Systematic Review"</a>. <i>Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering</i>. <b>29</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">2531–</span>2561. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11831-021-09694-4">10.1007/s11831-021-09694-4</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1886-1784">1886-1784</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-tro-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tro_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hu, J.; Bhowmick, P.; Jang, I.; Arvin, F.; Lanzon, A., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=9423979">A Decentralized Cluster Formation Containment Framework for Multirobot Systems</a>" IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 2021.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSoléRodriguez-AmorDuran-NebredaConde-Pueyo2016" class="citation journal cs1">Solé R, Rodriguez-Amor D, Duran-Nebreda S, Conde-Pueyo N, Carbonell-Ballestero M, Montañez R (October 2016). "Synthetic Collective Intelligence". <i>BioSystems</i>. <b>148</b>: <span class="nowrap">47–</span>61. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016BiSys.148...47S">2016BiSys.148...47S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biosystems.2016.01.002">10.1016/j.biosystems.2016.01.002</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10630%2F32279">10630/32279</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26868302">26868302</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-reynolds-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reynolds_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reynolds_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Craig_Reynolds_(computer_graphics)" title="Craig Reynolds (computer graphics)">Reynolds, Craig</a> (1987). "Flocks, herds and schools: A distributed behavioral model". <i>Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques</i>. <a href="Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">Association for Computing Machinery</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">25–</span>34. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.103.7187">10.1.1.103.7187</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F37401.37406">10.1145/37401.37406</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-89791-227-3</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:546350">546350</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBanksVincentAnyakoha2007" class="citation journal cs1">Banks, Alec; Vincent, Jonathan; Anyakoha, Chukwudi (July 2007). "A review of particle swarm optimization. Part I: background and development". <i>Natural Computing</i>. <b>6</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">467–</span>484. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.605.5879">10.1.1.605.5879</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11047-007-9049-5">10.1007/s11047-007-9049-5</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2344624">2344624</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Vicsek1995-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vicsek1995_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVicsekCzirokBen-JacobCohen1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Tam%C3%A1s_Vicsek" title="Tamás Vicsek">Vicsek, T.</a>; Czirok, A.; Ben-Jacob, E.; Cohen, I.; Shochet, O. (1995). "Novel type of phase transition in a system of self-driven particles". <i><a href="Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a></i>. <b>75</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1226–</span>1229. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0611743">cond-mat/0611743</a></span>. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhRvL..75.1226V">1995PhRvL..75.1226V</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.75.1226">10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1226</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10060237">10060237</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15918052">15918052</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCzirókVicsek2006" class="citation journal cs1">Czirók, A.; Vicsek, T. (2006). "Collective behavior of interacting self-propelled particles". <i><a href="Physica_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Physica A">Physica A</a></i>. <b>281</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">17–</span>29. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0611742">cond-mat/0611742</a></span>. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhyA..281...17C">2000PhyA..281...17C</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0378-4371%2800%2900013-3">10.1016/S0378-4371(00)00013-3</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14211016">14211016</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Buhl_et_al-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buhl_et_al_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBuhlSumpterCouzinHale2006" class="citation journal cs1">Buhl, J.; Sumpter, D.J.T.; Couzin, D.; Hale, J.J.; Despland, E.; Miller, E.R.; Simpson, S.J.; et al. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110929220754/http://webscript.princeton.edu/~icouzin/website/wp-content/plugins/bib2html/data/papers/buhl06.pdf">"From disorder to order in marching locusts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Science</i>. <b>312</b> (5778): <span class="nowrap">1402–</span>1406. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...312.1402B">2006Sci...312.1402B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1125142">10.1126/science.1125142</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16741126">16741126</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:359329">359329</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webscript.princeton.edu/~icouzin/website/wp-content/plugins/bib2html/data/papers/buhl06.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-09-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-07</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTonerTuRamaswamy2005" class="citation journal cs1">Toner, J.; Tu, Y.; Ramaswamy, S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172510/http://eprints.iisc.ernet.in/3397/1/A89.pdf">"Hydrodynamics and phases of flocks"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Annals of Physics</i>. <b>318</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">170–</span>244. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AnPhy.318..170T">2005AnPhy.318..170T</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aop.2005.04.011">10.1016/j.aop.2005.04.011</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.iisc.ernet.in/3397/1/A89.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-07-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-07</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bertin_et_al-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bertin_et_al_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBertinDrozGrégoire2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bertin, E.; Droz, M.; Grégoire, G. (2009). "Hydrodynamic equations for self-propelled particles: microscopic derivation and stability analysis". <i><a href="J._Phys._A" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Phys. A">J. Phys. A</a></i>. <b>42</b> (44): 445001. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0907.4688">0907.4688</a></span>. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JPhA...42R5001B">2009JPhA...42R5001B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1751-8113%2F42%2F44%2F445001">10.1088/1751-8113/42/44/445001</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17686543">17686543</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Li_et_al-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Li_et_al_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLiLukemanEdelstein-Keshet2007" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Y.X.; Lukeman, R.; Edelstein-Keshet, L.; et al. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111001032730/http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~lukeman/fish_school_f.pdf">"Minimal mechanisms for school formation in self-propelled particles"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena</i>. <b>237</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">699–</span>720. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhyD..237..699L">2008PhyD..237..699L</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physd.2007.10.009">10.1016/j.physd.2007.10.009</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~lukeman/fish_school_f.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-10-01.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLones2014" class="citation book cs1">Lones, Michael A. (2014). "Metaheuristics in nature-inspired algorithms". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~ml355/common/papers/lones-gecco2014-metaheuristics.pdf"><i>Proceedings of the Companion Publication of the 2014 Annual Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1419–</span>1422. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.699.1825">10.1.1.699.1825</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2598394.2609841">10.1145/2598394.2609841</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781450328814</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14997975">14997975</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSörensen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Sörensen, Kenneth (January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/itor.12001">"Metaheuristics—the metaphor exposed"</a>. <i>International Transactions in Operational Research</i>. <b>22</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>18. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fitor.12001">10.1111/itor.12001</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0969-6016">0969-6016</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGloverSörensen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Glover, Fred; Sörensen, Kenneth (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.6532">"Metaheuristics"</a>. <i>Scholarpedia</i>. <b>10</b> (4): 6532. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.6532">10.4249/scholarpedia.6532</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1941-6016">1941-6016</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSwanAdriaensenBishrBurke2015" class="citation web cs1">Swan, Jerry; Adriaensen, Steven; Bishr, Mohamed; Burke, Edmund K.; Clark, John A.; De Causmaecke, Patrick; Durillo, Juan José; Hammond, Kevin; Hart, Emma; Johnson, Colin G.; Kocsis, Zoltan A.; Kovitz, Ben; Krawiec, Krzysztof; Martin, Simon; Merelo, Juan J.; Minku, Leandro L.; Özcan, Ender; Pappa, Gisele Lobo; Pesch, Erwin; García-Sánchez, Pablo; Schaerf, Andrea; Sim, Kevin; Smith, Jim; Stützle, Thomas; Wagner, Stefan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.nott.ac.uk/~exo/docs/publications/research-agenda-metaheuristic.pdf">"A Research Agenda for Metaheuristic Standardization"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Semantic Scholar</i>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:63728283">63728283</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-03-03</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Silberholz_2019_581–604-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Silberholz_2019_581–604_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Silberholz_2019_581–604_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSilberholzGoldenGuptaWang2019" class="citation cs2">Silberholz, John; Golden, Bruce; Gupta, Swati; Wang, Xingyin (2019), Gendreau, Michel; Potvin, Jean-Yves (eds.), "Computational Comparison of Metaheuristics", <i>Handbook of Metaheuristics</i>, International Series in Operations Research & Management Science, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. <span class="nowrap">581–</span>604, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-91086-4_18">10.1007/978-3-319-91086-4_18</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-319-91086-4</bdi>, <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:70030182">70030182</a></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBurkeDe_CausmaeckerPetrovicBerghe2004" class="citation cs2">Burke, Edmund; De Causmaecker, Patrick; Petrovic, Sanja; Berghe, Greet Vanden (2004), Resende, Mauricio G. C.; de Sousa, Jorge Pinho (eds.), "Variable Neighborhood Search for Nurse Rostering Problems", <i>Metaheuristics: Computer Decision-Making</i>, Applied Optimization, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. <span class="nowrap">153–</span>172, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4757-4137-7_7">10.1007/978-1-4757-4137-7_7</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4757-4137-7</bdi></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFu2002" class="citation journal cs1">Fu, Michael C. (2002-08-01). "Feature Article: Optimization for simulation: Theory vs. Practice". <i>INFORMS Journal on Computing</i>. <b>14</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">192–</span>215. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fijoc.14.3.192.113">10.1287/ijoc.14.3.192.113</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1091-9856">1091-9856</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDorigoBirattariStutzle2006" class="citation journal cs1">Dorigo, Marco; Birattari, Mauro; Stutzle, Thomas (November 2006). "Ant colony optimization". <i>IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine</i>. <b>1</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">28–</span>39. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMCI.2006.329691">10.1109/MCI.2006.329691</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-603X">1556-603X</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHayes-RothFrederick1975" class="citation journal cs1">Hayes-RothFrederick (1975-08-01). "Review of "Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems by John H. Holland", The U. of Michigan Press, 1975". <i>ACM SIGART Bulletin</i> (53): 15. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1216504.1216510">10.1145/1216504.1216510</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14985677">14985677</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFResendeRibeiro2010" class="citation cs2">Resende, Mauricio G.C.; Ribeiro, Celso C. (2010), Gendreau, Michel; Potvin, Jean-Yves (eds.), "Greedy Randomized Adaptive Search Procedures: Advances, Hybridizations, and Applications", <i>Handbook of Metaheuristics</i>, International Series in Operations Research & Management Science, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. <span class="nowrap">283–</span>319, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1665-5_10">10.1007/978-1-4419-1665-5_10</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4419-1665-5</bdi></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKudelićIvković2019" class="citation journal cs1">Kudelić, Robert; Ivković, Nikola (2019-05-15). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0957417418307899">"Ant inspired Monte Carlo algorithm for minimum feedback arc set"</a></span>. <i>Expert Systems with Applications</i>. <b>122</b>: <span class="nowrap">108–</span>117. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2018.12.021">10.1016/j.eswa.2018.12.021</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0957-4174">0957-4174</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:68071710">68071710</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ant Colony Optimization by Marco Dorigo and Thomas Stützle, MIT Press, 2004. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-262-04219-3</bdi></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFParsopoulosVrahatis2002" class="citation journal cs1">Parsopoulos, K. E.; Vrahatis, M. N. (2002). "Recent Approaches to Global Optimization Problems Through Particle Swarm Optimization". <i>Natural Computing</i>. <b>1</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">235–</span>306. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1016568309421">10.1023/A:1016568309421</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4021089">4021089</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iste.co.uk/?searchtext=clerc&ACTION=Search&cat=&ACTION=Search">Particle Swarm Optimization</a> by Maurice Clerc, ISTE, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-905209-04-5</bdi>, 2006.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2015" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Louis (2015-07-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/978-0-262-33027-5-ch117">"Human Swarms, a real-time method for collective intelligence"</a>. <i>07/20/2015-07/24/2015</i>. Vol. 27. pp. <span class="nowrap">658–</span>659. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7551%2F978-0-262-33027-5-ch117">10.7551/978-0-262-33027-5-ch117</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780262330275</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosenbergWillcox2020" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Louis; Willcox, Gregg (2020). "Artificial Swarm Intelligence". In Bi, Yaxin; Bhatia, Rahul; Kapoor, Supriya (eds.). <i>Intelligent Systems and Applications</i>. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. Vol. 1037. Springer International Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">1054–</span>1070. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-29516-5_79">10.1007/978-3-030-29516-5_79</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783030295165</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195258629">195258629</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfAskayRosenberg2019" class="citation journal cs1">Metcalf, Lynn; Askay, David A.; Rosenberg, Louis B. (2019). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1105&context=it_fac">"Keeping Humans in the Loop: Pooling Knowledge through Artificial Swarm Intelligence to Improve Business Decision Making"</a></span>. <i>California Management Review</i>. <b>61</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">84–</span>109. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0008125619862256">10.1177/0008125619862256</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-1256">0008-1256</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202323483">202323483</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchumannWillcoxRosenbergPescetelli2019" class="citation book cs1">Schumann, Hans; Willcox, Gregg; Rosenberg, Louis; Pescetelli, Niccolo (2019). ""Human Swarming" Amplifies Accuracy and ROI when Forecasting Financial Markets". <i>2019 IEEE International Conference on Humanized Computing and Communication (HCC)</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">77–</span>82. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FHCC46620.2019.00019">10.1109/HCC46620.2019.00019</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-7281-4125-1</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209496644">209496644</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:2-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBayern2018" class="citation news cs1">Bayern, Macy (September 4, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techrepublic.com/article/how-ai-systems-beat-vegas-oddsmakers-in-sports-forecasting-accuracy/">"How AI systems beat Vegas oddsmakers in sports forecasting accuracy"</a>. <i>TechRepublic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-09-10</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:4-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFScudellari2018" class="citation web cs1">Scudellari, Megan (2018-09-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/ai-human-hive-mind-diagnoses-pneumonia">"AI-Human "Hive Mind" Diagnoses Pneumonia"</a>. <i>IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-20</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:3-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosenbergLungrenHalabiWillcox2018" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, Louis; Lungren, Matthew; Halabi, Safwan; Willcox, Gregg; Baltaxe, David; Lyons, Mimi (November 2018). "Artificial Swarm Intelligence employed to Amplify Diagnostic Accuracy in Radiology". <i>2018 IEEE 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON)</i>. Vancouver, BC: IEEE. pp. <span class="nowrap">1186–</span>1191. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEMCON.2018.8614883">10.1109/IEMCON.2018.8614883</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781538672662</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:58675679">58675679</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFOliveiraHaann.d." class="citation report cs1">Oliveira, Leila; Haan, Nicolas (n.d.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/IPC-ATARI-Report-_2.pdf">IPC ATARI #2: Pilots for Increased Coverage and Frequency of IPC classifications</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 31,</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2021" class="citation web cs1">Rosenberg, Louis (October 13, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bigthink.com/the-future/swarm-intelligence-ai-honeybees/">"Swarm intelligence: AI inspired by honeybees can help us make better decisions"</a>. <i>Big Think</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLewisBekey" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, M. Anthony; Bekey, George A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3690783">"The Behavioral Self-Organization of Nanorobots Using Local Rules"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the 1992 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFal-RifaieAber" class="citation journal cs1">al-Rifaie, M.M.; Aber, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262223271">"Identifying metastasis in bone scans with Stochastic Diffusion Search"</a>. <i>Proc. IEEE Information Technology in Medicine and Education, ITME</i>. <b>2012</b>: <span class="nowrap">519–</span>523.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">al-Rifaie, Mohammad Majid, Ahmed Aber, and Ahmed Majid Oudah. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/30759619/Utilising-Stochastic-Diffusion-Search.pdf">Utilising Stochastic Diffusion Search to identify metastasis in bone scans and microcalcifications on mammographs</a>." In Bioinformatics and Biomedicine Workshops (BIBMW), 2012 IEEE International Conference on, pp. 280-287. IEEE, 2012.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSunTangZhangHuo2020" class="citation journal cs1">Sun, Weifeng; Tang, Min; Zhang, Lijun; Huo, Zhiqiang; Shu, Lei (January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7085620">"A Survey of Using Swarm Intelligence Algorithms in IoT"</a>. <i>Sensors</i>. <b>20</b> (5): 1420. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Senso..20.1420S">2020Senso..20.1420S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fs20051420">10.3390/s20051420</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1424-8220">1424-8220</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7085620">7085620</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32150912">32150912</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAbualigahFalconeForestiero2023" class="citation journal cs1">Abualigah, Laith; Falcone, Deborah; Forestiero, Agostino (2023-05-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10241578">"Swarm Intelligence to Face IoT Challenges"</a>. <i>Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience</i>. <b>2023</b>: 4254194. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2023%2F4254194">10.1155/2023/4254194</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1687-5265">1687-5265</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10241578">10241578</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37284052">37284052</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/59831/intent-based-networking-for-the-internet-of-things/overview">"Intent-Based Networking for the Internet of Things | Frontiers Research Topic"</a>. <i>www.frontiersin.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMartensBaesensFawcett2011" class="citation journal cs1">Martens, D.; Baesens, B.; Fawcett, T. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10994-010-5216-5">"Editorial Survey: Swarm Intelligence for Data Mining"</a>. <i>Machine Learning</i>. <b>82</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>42. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10994-010-5216-5">10.1007/s10994-010-5216-5</a></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThrunUltsch2021" class="citation journal cs1">Thrun, M.; Ultsch, A. (2021). "Swarm Intelligence for Self-Organized Clustering". <i>Artificial Intelligence</i>. <b>290</b>: 103237. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.05521">2106.05521</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.artint.2020.103237">10.1016/j.artint.2020.103237</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213923899">213923899</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFladererKurzmann2019" class="citation book cs1">Fladerer, Johannes-Paul; Kurzmann, Ernst (November 2019). <i>The Wisdom of the Many: how to create self-organisation and how to use collective... intelligence in companies and in society from mana</i>. Books on Demand. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783750422421</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitaker, R.M., Hurley, S.. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=508902">An agent based approach to site selection for wireless networks</a>. Proc ACM Symposium on Applied Computing, pp. 574–577, (2002).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101124132227/https://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2008/0406-planes_trains_and_ant_hills.htm">"Planes, Trains and Ant Hills: Computer scientists simulate activity of ants to reduce airline delays"</a>. <i>Science Daily</i>. April 1, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2008/0406-planes_trains_and_ant_hills.htm">the original</a> on November 24, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 1,</span> 2010</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMahantSingh_RathoreKesharwaniChoudhary2012" class="citation journal cs1">Mahant, Manish; Singh Rathore, Kalyani; Kesharwani, Abhishek; Choudhary, Bharat (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:-gCjl9XY6IcJ:scholar.google.com/+A+Profound+Survey+on+Swarm+Intelligence&hl=vi&as_sdt=0,5">"A Profound Survey on Swarm Intelligence"</a>. <i>International Journal of Advanced Computer Research</i>. <b>2</b> (1)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2010" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Peter (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/smartswarmhowund00mill"><i>The Smart Swarm: How understanding flocks, schools, and colonies can make us better at communicating, decision making, and getting things done</i></a></span>. New York: Avery. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58333-390-7</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFOxenham2016" class="citation web cs1">Oxenham, Simon (15 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/story/20161215-why-bees-could-be-the-secret-to-superhuman-intelligence">"Why bees could be the secret to superhuman intelligence"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-01-20</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rosenberg_58–62-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rosenberg_58–62_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosenbergPescetelliWillcox2017" class="citation book cs1">Rosenberg, L.; Pescetelli, N.; Willcox, G. (October 2017). "Artificial Swarm Intelligence amplifies accuracy when predicting financial markets". <i>2017 IEEE 8th Annual Ubiquitous Computing, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (UEMCON)</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">58–</span>62. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FUEMCON.2017.8248984">10.1109/UEMCON.2017.8248984</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5386-1104-3</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21312426">21312426</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/Technology/2016/0512/Smarter-as-a-group-How-swarm-intelligence-picked-Derby-winners">"Smarter as a group: How swarm intelligence picked Derby winners"</a>. <i>Christian Science Monitor</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/swarm-ai-unu-boasts-it-can-predict-winners-using-humans/">"AI startup taps human 'swarm' intelligence to predict winners"</a>. <i>CNET</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2016" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenberg, Louis (2016-02-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/3016387.3016604">"Artificial Swarm Intelligence, a human-in-the-loop approach to A.I."</a> <i>Proceedings of the Thirtieth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence</i>. AAAI'16. Phoenix, Arizona: AAAI Press: <span class="nowrap">4381–</span>4382.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://venturebeat.com/2018/09/10/unanimous-ai-achieves-22-more-accurate-pneumonia-diagnoses/">"Unanimous AI achieves 22% more accurate pneumonia diagnoses"</a>. <i>VentureBeat</i>. 2018-09-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-20</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radiologytoday.net/archive/rt0119p12.shtml">"A Swarm of Insight - Radiology Today Magazine"</a>. <i>www.radiologytoday.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-20</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShahAstutoGleasonFletcher2021" class="citation arxiv cs1">Shah, Rutwik; Astuto, Bruno; Gleason, Tyler; Fletcher, Will; Banaga, Justin; Sweetwood, Kevin; Ye, Allen; Patel, Rina; McGill, Kevin; Link, Thomas; Crane, Jason (2021-09-06). "Utilizing a digital swarm intelligence platform to improve consensus among radiologists and exploring its applications". <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.07341">2107.07341</a></span> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.HC">cs.HC</a>].</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShahAstuto_Arouche_NunesGleasonFletcher2023" class="citation journal cs1">Shah, Rutwik; Astuto Arouche Nunes, Bruno; Gleason, Tyler; Fletcher, Will; Banaga, Justin; Sweetwood, Kevin; Ye, Allen; Patel, Rina; McGill, Kevin; Link, Thomas; Crane, Jason; Pedoia, Valentina; Majumdar, Sharmila (April 4, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10039189">"Utilizing a Digital Swarm Intelligence Platform to Improve Consensus Among Radiologists and Exploring Its Applications"</a>. <i>Journal of Digital Imaging</i>. <b>36</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">401–</span>413. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10278-022-00662-3">10.1007/s10278-022-00662-3</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10039189">10039189</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36414832">36414832</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFvonMammenJacob2009" class="citation journal cs1">vonMammen, Sebastian; Jacob, Christian (2009). "The evolution of swarm grammars -- growing trees, crafting art and bottom-up design". <i>IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine</i>. <b>4</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">10–</span>19. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.384.9486">10.1.1.384.9486</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMCI.2009.933096">10.1109/MCI.2009.933096</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17882213">17882213</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="neuroscience" class="citation journal cs1">du Castel, Bertrand (15 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4502584">"Pattern Activation/Recognition Theory of Mind"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience</i>. <b>9</b> (90): 90. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffncom.2015.00090">10.3389/fncom.2015.00090</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4502584">4502584</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26236228">26236228</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFal-RifaieBishopCaines2012" class="citation journal cs1">al-Rifaie, MM; Bishop, J.M.; Caines, S. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.gold.ac.uk/17273/1/2012_CC_updated.pdf">"Creativity and Autonomy in Swarm Intelligence Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cognitive Computation</i>. <b>4</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">320–</span>331. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12559-012-9130-y">10.1007/s12559-012-9130-y</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:942335">942335</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deleuze G, Guattari F, Massumi B. A thousand plateaus. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 2004.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAl-RifaieBishop2013" class="citation book cs1">Al-Rifaie, Mohammad Majid; Bishop, John Mark (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.gold.ac.uk/17268/1/2013_EvoMUSART_sketches_April%283-5%29.pdf">"Swarmic Sketches and Attention Mechanism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.gold.ac.uk/17268/1/2013_EvoMUSART_sketches_April%283-5%29.pdf"><i>Evolutionary and Biologically Inspired Music, Sound, Art and Design</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 7834. pp. <span class="nowrap">85–</span>96. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-36955-1_8">10.1007/978-3-642-36955-1_8</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-36954-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAl-RifaieBishop2013" class="citation book cs1">Al-Rifaie, Mohammad Majid; Bishop, John Mark (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.gold.ac.uk/17267/1/2013_EvoMUSART_paintings_April%283-5%29.pdf">"Swarmic Paintings and Colour Attention"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.gold.ac.uk/17267/1/2013_EvoMUSART_paintings_April%283-5%29.pdf"><i>Evolutionary and Biologically Inspired Music, Sound, Art and Design</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 7834. pp. <span class="nowrap">97–</span>108. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-36955-1_9">10.1007/978-3-642-36955-1_9</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-36954-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">al-Rifaie, Mohammad Majid, Mark JM Bishop, and Ahmed Aber. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.gold.ac.uk/6939/1/AISB_On_Creativity_of_the_swarms_ISBN%3A_978-1-908187-03-1.pdf">Creative or Not? Birds and Ants Draw with Muscle</a>." Proceedings of AISB'11 Computing and Philosophy (2011): 23-30.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">al-Rifaie MM, Bishop M (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SSS/SSS13/paper/viewFile/5728/5925">Swarm intelligence and weak artificial creativity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190811190817/https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SSS/SSS13/paper/viewFile/5728/5925">Archived</a> 2019-08-11 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In: The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) 2013: Spring Symposium, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, U.S.A., pp 14–19</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.colorado.edu/lab/correll/">"Correll lab"</a>. <i>Correll lab</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBonabeauDorigoTheraulaz1999" class="citation book cs1">Bonabeau, Eric; Dorigo, Marco; Theraulaz, Guy (1999). <i>Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems</i>. Oup USA. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-513159-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKennedyEberhart2001" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, James; Eberhart, Russell C. (2001-04-09). <i>Swarm Intelligence</i>. Morgan Kaufmann. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-55860-595-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEngelbrecht2005" class="citation book cs1">Engelbrecht, Andries (2005-12-16). <i>Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence</i>. Wiley & Sons. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-09191-3</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<ul><li>Marco Dorigo and Mauro Birattari (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Swarm_intelligence">"Swarm intelligence"</a> in <i><a href="Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a></i></li>

<li>Antoinette Brown. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161130043122/https://medium.com/@antoinettebromwn/swarm-intelligence-review-eeb74beddbad#.xr4gpi4c6">Swarm Intelligence</a></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_cognition181" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Animal_cognition181" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li>

<li><a href="Talking_animal" title="Talking animal">Talking animal</a></li>

<li><a href="Talking_bird" title="Talking bird">Talking bird</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Animal-made_art" title="Animal-made art">Animal-made art</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">Cognitive bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_cognition" title="Comparative cognition">Comparative cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Insect_cognition" title="Insect cognition">Insect</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirror_test" title="Mirror test">Mirror test</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li>

<li><a href="Number_sense_in_animals" title="Number sense in animals">Number sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Primate_archaeology" title="Primate archaeology">Primate archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_mind_in_animals" title="Theory of mind in animals">Theory of mind</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Tool_use_by_sea_otters" title="Tool use by sea otters">sea otters</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vocal_learning" title="Vocal learning">Vocal learning</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pigeon_intelligence" title="Pigeon intelligence">Pigeon</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">Cephalopod</a></li>

<li><a href="Cetacean_intelligence" title="Cetacean intelligence">Cetacean</a></li>

<li><a href="Elephant_cognition" title="Elephant cognition">Elephant</a></li>

<li><a href="G_factor_in_non-humans" title="G factor in non-humans"><i>g</i> factor in non-humans</a></li>

<li><a href="Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Hominid</a></li></ul></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_in_crustaceans" title="Pain in crustaceans">Pain in crustaceans</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Relation to brain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brain_size" title="Brain size">Brain size</a></li>

<li><a href="Brain-to-body_mass_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain-to-body mass ratio">Brain-to-body mass ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="Encephalization_quotient" title="Encephalization quotient">Encephalization quotient</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">Neuroscience and intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_animals_by_number_of_neurons" title="List of animals by number of neurons">Number of neurons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Swarming203" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Swarming203" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarming</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Swarm_behaviour#Biological_swarming" title="Swarm behaviour">Biological swarming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agent-based_model_in_biology" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model in biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_animal_behavior" title="Collective animal behavior">Collective animal behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Droving" title="Droving">Droving</a></li>

<li><a href="Flock_(birds)" title="Flock (birds)">Flock</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flocking_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behavior)">flocking</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">herd behavior</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Locust" title="Locust">Locust</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixed-species_foraging_flock" title="Mixed-species foraging flock">Mixed-species foraging flock</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobbing_(animal_behavior)" title="Mobbing (animal behavior)">Mobbing behavior</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">feeding frenzy</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Pack_hunter" title="Pack hunter">pack hunter</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Patterns_of_self-organization_in_ants" title="Patterns of self-organization in ants">Patterns of self-organization in ants</a>

<li><a href="Symmetry_breaking_of_escaping_ants" title="Symmetry breaking of escaping ants">symmetry breaking of escaping ants</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a>

<li><a href="Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarming behaviour</a></li>

<li><a href="Swarming_(honey_bee)" title="Swarming (honey bee)">Swarming (honey bee)</a></li>

<li><a href="Swarming_motility" title="Swarming motility">Swarming motility</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a>

<ul><li><a href="Altitudinal_migration" title="Altitudinal migration">altitudinal</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_migration_tracking" title="Animal migration tracking">tracking</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_wildlife_tracking_technology" title="History of wildlife tracking technology">history</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Coded_wire_tag" title="Coded wire tag">coded wire tag</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">Bird migration</a>

<ul><li>flyways</li>

<li><a href="Reverse_migration_(birds)" title="Reverse migration (birds)">reverse migration</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cell_migration" title="Cell migration">Cell migration</a></li>

<li><a href="Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Fish migration</a>

<ul><li><a href="Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">diel vertical</a></li>

<li><a href="Lessepsian_migration" title="Lessepsian migration">Lessepsian</a></li>

<li><a href="Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">salmon run</a></li>

<li><a href="Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">sardine run</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Homing_(biology)" title="Homing (biology)">Homing</a>

<ul><li><a href="Natal_homing" title="Natal homing">natal</a></li>

<li><a href="Philopatry" title="Philopatry">philopatry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Insect_migration" title="Insect migration">Insect migration</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lepidoptera_migration" title="Lepidoptera migration">butterflies</a>

<ul><li><a href="Monarch_butterfly_migration" title="Monarch butterfly migration">monarch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sea_turtle_migration" title="Sea turtle migration">Sea turtle migration</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Swarm_behaviour#Models" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">Agent-based models</a></li>

<li><a href="Ant_colony_optimization_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization algorithm">Ant colony optimization</a></li>

<li><a href="Boids" title="Boids">Boids</a></li>

<li><a href="Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">Crowd simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a></li>

<li><a href="Swarm_(simulation)" title="Swarm (simulation)">Swarm (simulation)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_matter" title="Active matter">Active matter</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">Self-propelled particles</a>

<ul><li><a href="Clustering_of_self-propelled_particles" title="Clustering of self-propelled particles">clustering</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vicsek_model" title="Vicsek model">Vicsek model</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ant_robotics" title="Ant robotics">Ant robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbotics" title="Microbotics">Microbotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbrion" title="Symbrion">Symbrion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Decentralised_system" title="Decentralised system">Decentralised system</a></li>

<li><a href="Eusociality" title="Eusociality">Eusociality</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_size_measures" title="Group size measures">Group size measures</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Predator_satiation" title="Predator satiation">Predator satiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_organization" title="Spatial organization">Spatial organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></li>

<li><a href="Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Military swarming</a></li>

<li><a href="Task_allocation_and_partitioning_of_social_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Task allocation and partitioning of social insects">Task allocation and partitioning of social insects</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Optimization:_Algorithms,_methods,_and_heuristics381" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Optimization:_Algorithms,_methods,_and_heuristics381" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Optimization</a>: <a href="Optimization_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimization algorithm">Algorithms</a>, <a href="Iterative_method" title="Iterative method">methods</a>, and <a href="Heuristic_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristic algorithm">heuristics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Unconstrained_nonlinear381" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Nonlinear_programming" title="Nonlinear programming">Unconstrained nonlinear</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">Functions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Golden-section_search" title="Golden-section search">Golden-section search</a></li>

<li><a href="Powell's_method" title="Powell's method">Powell's method</a></li>

<li><a href="Line_search" title="Line search">Line search</a></li>

<li><a href="Nelder%E2%80%93Mead_method" title="Nelder–Mead method">Nelder–Mead method</a></li>

<li><a href="Successive_parabolic_interpolation" title="Successive parabolic interpolation">Successive parabolic interpolation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Gradient" title="Gradient">Gradients</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Local_convergence" title="Local convergence">Convergence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Trust_region" title="Trust region">Trust region</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolfe_conditions" title="Wolfe conditions">Wolfe conditions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Quasi-Newton_method" title="Quasi-Newton method">Quasi–Newton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Berndt%E2%80%93Hall%E2%80%93Hall%E2%80%93Hausman_algorithm" title="Berndt–Hall–Hall–Hausman algorithm">Berndt–Hall–Hall–Hausman</a></li>

<li><a href="Broyden%E2%80%93Fletcher%E2%80%93Goldfarb%E2%80%93Shanno_algorithm" title="Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno algorithm">Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno</a> and <a href="Limited-memory_BFGS" title="Limited-memory BFGS">L-BFGS</a></li>

<li><a href="Davidon%E2%80%93Fletcher%E2%80%93Powell_formula" title="Davidon–Fletcher–Powell formula">Davidon–Fletcher–Powell</a></li>

<li><a href="Symmetric_rank-one" title="Symmetric rank-one">Symmetric rank-one (SR1)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Iterative_method" title="Iterative method">Other methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nonlinear_conjugate_gradient_method" title="Nonlinear conjugate gradient method">Conjugate gradient</a></li>

<li><a href="Gauss%E2%80%93Newton_algorithm" title="Gauss–Newton algorithm">Gauss–Newton</a></li>

<li><a href="Gradient_descent" title="Gradient descent">Gradient</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirror_descent" title="Mirror descent">Mirror</a></li>

<li><a href="Levenberg%E2%80%93Marquardt_algorithm" title="Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm">Levenberg–Marquardt</a></li>

<li><a href="Powell's_dog_leg_method" title="Powell's dog leg method">Powell's dog leg method</a></li>

<li><a href="Truncated_Newton_method" title="Truncated Newton method">Truncated Newton</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hessian_matrix" title="Hessian matrix">Hessians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Newton's_method_in_optimization" title="Newton's method in optimization">Newton's method</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Constrained_nonlinear381" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Nonlinear_programming" title="Nonlinear programming">Constrained nonlinear</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Barrier_function" title="Barrier function">Barrier methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Penalty_method" title="Penalty method">Penalty methods</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Differentiable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Augmented_Lagrangian_method" title="Augmented Lagrangian method">Augmented Lagrangian methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Sequential_quadratic_programming" title="Sequential quadratic programming">Sequential quadratic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Successive_linear_programming" title="Successive linear programming">Successive linear programming</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Convex_optimization381" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Convex_optimization" title="Convex optimization">Convex optimization</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Convex_minimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Convex minimization">Convex<br> minimization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cutting-plane_method" title="Cutting-plane method">Cutting-plane method</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank%E2%80%93Wolfe_algorithm" title="Frank–Wolfe algorithm">Reduced gradient (Frank–Wolfe)</a></li>

<li><a href="Subgradient_method" title="Subgradient method">Subgradient method</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Linear_programming" title="Linear programming">Linear</a> and<br><a href="Quadratic_programming" title="Quadratic programming">quadratic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Linear_programming#Interior_point" title="Linear programming">Interior point</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affine_scaling" title="Affine scaling">Affine scaling</a></li>

<li><a href="Ellipsoid_method" title="Ellipsoid method">Ellipsoid algorithm of Khachiyan</a></li>

<li><a href="Karmarkar's_algorithm" title="Karmarkar's algorithm">Projective algorithm of Karmarkar</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Matroid" title="Matroid">Basis-</a><a href="Exchange_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Exchange algorithm">exchange</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Simplex_algorithm" title="Simplex algorithm">Simplex algorithm of Dantzig</a></li>

<li><a href="Revised_simplex_method" title="Revised simplex method">Revised simplex algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Criss-cross_algorithm" title="Criss-cross algorithm">Criss-cross algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Lemke's_algorithm" title="Lemke's algorithm">Principal pivoting algorithm of Lemke</a></li>

<li><a href="Active-set_method" title="Active-set method">Active-set method</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Combinatorial381" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Combinatorial_optimization" title="Combinatorial optimization">Combinatorial</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Paradigms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Approximation_algorithm" title="Approximation algorithm">Approximation algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_programming" title="Dynamic programming">Dynamic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Greedy_algorithm" title="Greedy algorithm">Greedy algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Integer_programming" title="Integer programming">Integer programming</a>

<ul><li><a href="Branch_and_bound" title="Branch and bound">Branch and bound</a>/<a href="Branch_and_cut" title="Branch and cut">cut</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Graph_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Graph algorithm">Graph<br> algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Minimum_spanning_tree52" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Minimum_spanning_tree" title="Minimum spanning tree">Minimum<br> spanning tree</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bor%C5%AFvka's_algorithm" title="Borůvka's algorithm">Borůvka</a></li>

<li><a href="Kruskal's_algorithm" title="Kruskal's algorithm">Kruskal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Shortest_path39" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Shortest_path_problem" title="Shortest path problem">Shortest path</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bellman%E2%80%93Ford_algorithm" title="Bellman–Ford algorithm">Bellman–Ford</a>

<li><a href="Dijkstra's_algorithm" title="Dijkstra's algorithm">Dijkstra</a></li>

<li><a href="Floyd%E2%80%93Warshall_algorithm" title="Floyd–Warshall algorithm">Floyd–Warshall</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Flow_network" title="Flow network">Network flows</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dinic's_algorithm" title="Dinic's algorithm">Dinic</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmonds%E2%80%93Karp_algorithm" title="Edmonds–Karp algorithm">Edmonds–Karp</a></li>

<li><a href="Ford%E2%80%93Fulkerson_algorithm" title="Ford–Fulkerson algorithm">Ford–Fulkerson</a></li>

<li><a href="Push%E2%80%93relabel_maximum_flow_algorithm" title="Push–relabel maximum flow algorithm">Push–relabel maximum flow</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_algorithm" title="Evolutionary algorithm">Evolutionary algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Hill_climbing" title="Hill climbing">Hill climbing</a></li>

<li><a href="Local_search_(optimization)" title="Local search (optimization)">Local search</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_metaheuristic" title="Parallel metaheuristic">Parallel metaheuristics</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulated_annealing" title="Simulated annealing">Simulated annealing</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiral_optimization_algorithm" title="Spiral optimization algorithm">Spiral optimization algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Tabu_search" title="Tabu search">Tabu search</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_optimization_software" title="Comparison of optimization software">Software</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863960#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1154" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863960#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1154" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Schwarmintelligenz"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4793676-9">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2001001702">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="inteligence hejna"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph644343&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007530456105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/613db2d1-250b-41c3-b334-9cd8d859fc8c">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-31" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Swarm_intelligence&oldid=1303576025">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>